Pg(3p)

NAME
DBD::Pg - PostgreSQL database driver for the DBI module

SYNOPSIS
  use DBI;

  $dbh = DBI->connect("dbi:Pg:dbname=$dbname", '', '', {AutoCommit => 0});
  # The AutoCommit attribute should always be explicitly set

  # For some advanced uses you may need PostgreSQL type values:
  use DBD::Pg qw(:pg_types);

  $dbh->do('INSERT INTO mytable(a) VALUES (1)');

  $sth = $dbh->prepare('INSERT INTO mytable(a) VALUES (?)');
  $sth->execute();

VERSION
This documents version 3.17.0 of the DBD::Pg module

DESCRIPTION
DBD::Pg is a Perl module that works with the DBI module to provide access to PostgreSQL databases.

MODULE DOCUMENTATION
This documentation describes driver specific behavior and restrictions. It is not supposed to be used as the only reference for the user. In any case consult the DBI documentation first!

Latest DBI documentation.

THE DBI CLASS

  DBI Class Methods
connect

This method creates a database handle by connecting to a database, and is the DBI equivalent of the "new" method. To connect to a Postgres database with a minimum of parameters, use the following syntax:

  $dbh = DBI->connect("dbi:Pg:dbname=$dbname", '', '', {AutoCommit => 0});

This connects to the database named in the $dbname variable on the default port (usually 5432) without any user authentication.

The following connect statement shows almost all possible parameters:

  $dbh = DBI->connect("dbi:Pg:dbname=$dbname;host=$host;port=$port;options=$options",
                      $username,
                      $password,
                      {AutoCommit => 0, RaiseError => 1, PrintError => 0}
                     );

Parameters containing unusual characters such as spaces can be wrapped in single quotes around the value, and single quotes and backslashes can be escaped with a backslash, e.g. "dbi:Pg:dbname='\'spacey\' name';host=$host".

If a parameter is not given, the connect() method will first look for specific environment variables, and then fall back to hard-coded defaults:

  parameter    environment variable    hard coded default
  ------------------------------------------------------
  host         PGHOST                  local domain socket
  hostaddr     PGHOSTADDR              local domain socket
  port         PGPORT                  5432
  dbname*      PGDATABASE              current userid
  username     PGUSER                  current userid
  password     PGPASSWORD              (none)
  options      PGOPTIONS               (none)
  service      PGSERVICE               (none)
  sslmode      PGSSLMODE               (none)

* May also use the aliases "db" or "database"

If the username and password values passed via connect() are undefined (as opposed to merely being empty strings), DBI will use the environment variables DBI_USER and DBI_PASS if they exist.

You can also connect by using a service connection file. Service names can be defined in either a per-user service file or a system-wide file. If the same service name exists in both the user and the system file, the user file takes precedence. By default, the per-user service file is named ~/.pg_service.conf. On Microsoft Windows, it is named %APPDATA% \postgresql\.pg_service.conf (where %APPDATA% refers to the Application Data subdirectory in the user's profile). A different file name can be specified by setting the environment variable PGSERVICEFILE. The system-wide file is named pg_service.conf. The location of this file can be controlled by setting the PGSYSCONFDIR environment variable. To use one of the named services within the file, set the name by using either the service parameter or the environment variable PGSERVICE. Note that when connecting this way, only the minimum parameters should be used. For example, to connect to a service named "zephyr", you could use:

  $dbh = DBI->connect("dbi:Pg:service=zephyr", '', '');

You could also set $ENV{PGSERVICE} to "zephyr" and connect like this:

  $dbh = DBI->connect("dbi:Pg:", '', '');

The format of the pg_service.conf file is simply a bracketed service name, followed by one parameter per line in the format name=value. For example:

  [zephyr]
  dbname=winds
  user=wisp
  password=W$2Hc00YSgP
  port=6543

There are four valid arguments to the sslmode parameter, which controls whether to use SSL to connect to the database:

•   disable: SSL connections are never used

•   allow: try non-SSL, then SSL

•   prefer: try SSL, then non-SSL

•   require: connect only with SSL

You can also connect using sockets in a specific directory. This may be needed if the server you are connecting to has a different default socket directory from the one used to compile DBD::Pg. Use the complete path to the socket directory as the name of the host, like this:

  $dbh = DBI->connect('dbi:Pg:dbname=foo;host=/var/tmp/socket',
    $username,
    $password,
    {AutoCommit => 0, RaiseError => 1});

The attribute hash can also contain a key named "dbd_verbose", which simply calls "$dbh->trace('DBD')" after the handle is created. This attribute is not recommended, as it is clearer to simply explicitly call "trace" explicitly in your script.

connect_cached

  $dbh = DBI->connect_cached("dbi:Pg:dbname=$dbname", $username, $password, \%options);

Implemented by DBI, no driver-specific impact.

data_sources

  @data_sources = DBI->data_sources('Pg');
  @data_sources = $dbh->data_sources();

Returns a list of available databases. Unless the environment variable "DBI_DSN" is set, a connection will be attempted to the database "template1". The normal connection environment variables also apply, such as "PGHOST", "PGPORT", "DBI_USER", "DBI_PASS", and "PGSERVICE".

You can also pass in options to add to the connection string For example, to specify an alternate port and host:

  @data_sources = DBI->data_sources('Pg', 'port=5824;host=example.com');

  or:

  @data_sources = $dbh->data_sources('port=5824;host=example.com');

  Methods Common To All Handles
For all of the methods below, $h can be either a database handle ($dbh) or a statement handle ($sth). Note that $dbh and $sth can be replaced with any variable name you choose: these are just the names most often used. Another common variable used in this documentation is $rv, which stands for "return value".

err

  $rv = $h->err;

Returns the error code from the last method called. For the connect method it returns "PQstatus", which is a number used by libpq (the Postgres connection library). A value of 0 indicates no error (CONNECTION_OK), while any other number indicates a failed connection. The only other number commonly seen is 1 (CONNECTION_BAD). See the libpq documentation for the complete list of return codes.

In all other non-connect methods "$h->err" returns the "PQresultStatus" of the current handle. This is a number used by libpq and is one of:

  0  Empty query string
  1  A command that returns no data successfully completed.
  2  A command that returns data successfully completed.
  3  A COPY OUT command is still in progress.
  4  A COPY IN command is still in progress.
  5  A bad response was received from the backend.
  6  A nonfatal error occurred (a notice or warning message)
  7  A fatal error was returned: the last query failed.

errstr

  $str = $h->errstr;

Returns the last error that was reported by Postgres. This message is affected by the pg_errorlevel setting.

state

  $str = $h->state;

Returns a five-character "SQLSTATE" code. Success is indicated by a 00000 code, which gets mapped to an empty string by DBI. A code of "S8006" indicates a connection failure, usually because the connection to the Postgres server has been lost.

While this method can be called as either "$sth->state" or "$dbh->state", it is usually clearer to always use "$dbh->state".

The list of codes used by PostgreSQL can be found at: <http://www.postgresql.org/docs/current/static/errcodes-appendix.html>

Note that these codes are part of the SQL standard and only a small number of them will be used by PostgreSQL.

Common codes:

  00000 Successful completion
  25P01 No active SQL transaction
  25P02 In failed SQL transaction
  S8006 Connection failure

trace

  $h->trace($trace_settings);
  $h->trace($trace_settings, $trace_filename);
  $trace_settings = $h->trace;

Changes the trace settings on a database or statement handle. The optional second argument specifies a file to write the trace information to. If no filename is given, the information is written to STDERR. Note that tracing can be set globally as well by setting "DBI->trace", or by using the environment variable DBI_TRACE.

The value is either a numeric level or a named flag. For the flags that DBD::Pg uses, see parse_trace_flag.

trace_msg

  $h->trace_msg($message_text);
  $h->trace_msg($message_text, $min_level);

Writes a message to the current trace output (as set by the "trace" method). If a second argument is given, the message is only written if the current tracing level is equal to or greater than the $min_level.

parse_trace_flag and parse_trace_flags

  $h->trace($h->parse_trace_flags('SQL|pglibpq'));
  $h->trace($h->parse_trace_flags('1|pgstart'));

  ## Simpler:
  $h->trace('SQL|pglibpq');
  $h->trace('1|pgstart');

  my $value = DBD::Pg->parse_trace_flag('pglibpq');
  DBI->trace($value);

The parse_trace_flags method is used to convert one or more named flags to a number which can passed to the "trace" method. DBD::Pg currently supports the DBI-specific flag, "SQL", as well as the ones listed below.

Flags can be combined by using the parse_trace_flags method, which simply calls "parse_trace_flag" on each item and combines them.

Sometimes you may wish to turn the tracing on before you connect to the database. The second example above shows a way of doing this: the call to "DBD::Pg->parse_trace_flags" provides a number than can be fed to "DBI->trace" before you create a database handle.

DBD::Pg supports the following trace flags:

SQL Outputs all SQL statements. Note that the output provided will not necessarily be in a form suitable to passing directly to Postgres, as server-side prepared statements are used extensively by DBD::Pg. For maximum portability of output (but with a potential performance hit), use with "$dbh->{pg_server_prepare} = 0".

DBD Turns on all non-DBI flags, in other words, only the ones that are specific to DBD::Pg (all those below which start with the letters 'pg').

pglibpq
    Outputs the name of each libpq function (without arguments) immediately before running it. This is a good way to trace the flow of your program at a low level. This information is also output if the trace level is set to 4 or greater.

pgstart
    Outputs the name of each internal DBD::Pg function, and other information such as the function arguments or important global variables, as each function starts. This information is also output if the trace level is set to 4 or greater.

pgend
    Outputs a simple message at the very end of each internal DBD::Pg function. This is also output if the trace level is set to 4 or greater.

pgprefix
    Forces each line of trace output to begin with the string "dbdpg: ". This helps to differentiate it from the normal DBI trace output.

pglogin
    Outputs a message showing the connection string right before a new database connection is attempted, a message when the connection was successful, and a message right after the database has been disconnected. Also output if trace level is 5 or greater.

See the DBI section on TRACING for more information.

func

DBD::Pg uses the "func" method to support a variety of functions. Note that the name of the function comes last, after the arguments.

table_attributes
      $attrs = $dbh->func($table, 'table_attributes');

    Use of the tables_attributes function is no longer recommended. Instead, you can use the more portable "column_info" and "primary_key" methods to access the same information.

    The table_attributes method returns, for the given table argument, a reference to an array of hashes, each of which contains the following keys:

      NAME        attribute name
      TYPE        attribute type
      SIZE        attribute size (-1 for variable size)
      NULLABLE    flag nullable
      DEFAULT     default value
      CONSTRAINT  constraint
      PRIMARY_KEY flag is_primary_key
      REMARKS     attribute description

pg_lo_creat
      $lobjId = $dbh->pg_lo_creat($mode);

    Creates a new large object and returns the object-id. $mode is a bitmask describing read and write access to the new object. This setting is ignored since Postgres version 8.1. For backwards compatibility, however, you should set a valid mode anyway (see "pg_lo_open" for a list of valid modes).

    Upon failure it returns "undef". This function cannot be used if AutoCommit is enabled.

    The old way of calling large objects functions is deprecated: $dbh->func(.., 'lo_);

pg_lo_open
      $lobj_fd = $dbh->pg_lo_open($lobjId, $mode);

    Opens an existing large object and returns an object-descriptor for use in subsequent "pg_lo_*" calls. $mode is a bitmask describing read and write access to the opened object. It may be one of:

      $dbh->{pg_INV_READ}
      $dbh->{pg_INV_WRITE}
      $dbh->{pg_INV_READ} | $dbh->{pg_INV_WRITE}

    "pg_INV_WRITE" and "pg_INV_WRITE | pg_INV_READ" modes are identical; in both modes, the large object can be read from or written to. Reading from the object will provide the object as written in other committed transactions, along with any writes performed by the current transaction. Objects opened with "pg_INV_READ" cannot be written to. Reading from this object will provide the stored data at the time of the transaction snapshot which was active when "pg_lo_write" was called.

    Returns "undef" upon failure. Note that 0 is a perfectly correct (and common) object descriptor! This function cannot be used if AutoCommit is enabled.

pg_lo_write
      $nbytes = $dbh->pg_lo_write($lobj_fd, $buffer, $len);

    Writes $len bytes of $buffer into the large object $lobj_fd. Returns the number of bytes written and "undef" upon failure. This function cannot be used if AutoCommit is enabled.

pg_lo_read
      $nbytes = $dbh->pg_lo_read($lobj_fd, $buffer, $len);

    Reads $len bytes into $buffer from large object $lobj_fd. Returns the number of bytes read and "undef" upon failure. This function cannot be used if AutoCommit is enabled.

pg_lo_lseek
      $loc = $dbh->pg_lo_lseek($lobj_fd, $offset, $whence);

    Changes the current read or write location on the large object $obj_id. Currently $whence can only be 0 (which is L_SET). Returns the current location and "undef" upon failure. This function cannot be used if AutoCommit is enabled.

pg_lo_lseek64
    Backwards compatible alias for "pg_lo_lseek". Since DBD::Pg 3.16, that method handles 64-bit offsets if supported by the Perl and PostgreSQL versions in use.

pg_lo_tell
      $loc = $dbh->pg_lo_tell($lobj_fd);

    Returns the current read or write location on the large object $lobj_fd and "undef" upon failure. This function cannot be used if AutoCommit is enabled.

pg_lo_tell64
    Backwards compatible alias for "pg_lo_tell". Since DBD::Pg 3.16, that method handles 64-bit offsets if supported by the Perl and PostgreSQL versions in use.

pg_lo_truncate
      $loc = $dbh->pg_lo_truncate($lobj_fd, $len);

    Truncates the given large object to the new size. Returns "undef" on failure, and 0 on success. This function cannot be used if AutoCommit is enabled.

pg_lo_truncate64
    Backwards compatible alias "for pg_lo_truncate". Since DBD::Pg 3.16, that method handles 64-bit offsets if supported by the Perl and PostgreSQL versions in use.

pg_lo_close
      $lobj_fd = $dbh->pg_lo_close($lobj_fd);

    Closes an existing large object. Returns true upon success and false upon failure. This function cannot be used if AutoCommit is enabled.

pg_lo_unlink
      $ret = $dbh->pg_lo_unlink($lobjId);

    Deletes an existing large object. Returns true upon success and false upon failure. This function cannot be used if AutoCommit is enabled.

pg_lo_import
      $lobjId = $dbh->pg_lo_import($filename);

    Imports a Unix file as a large object and returns the object id of the new object or "undef" upon failure.

pg_lo_import_with_oid
      $lobjId = $dbh->pg_lo_import($filename, $OID);

    Same as pg_lo_import, but attempts to use the supplied OID as the large object number. If this number is 0, it falls back to the behavior of pg_lo_import (which assigns the next available OID).

    This is only available when DBD::Pg is compiled against a Postgres server version 8.4 or later.

pg_lo_export
      $ret = $dbh->pg_lo_export($lobjId, $filename);

    Exports a large object into a Unix file. Returns false upon failure, true otherwise.

getfd
      $fd = $dbh->func('getfd');

    Deprecated, use $dbh->{pg_socket} instead.

private_attribute_info

  $hashref = $dbh->private_attribute_info();
  $hashref = $sth->private_attribute_info();

Returns a hash of all private attributes used by DBD::Pg, for either a database or a statement handle. Currently, all the hash values are undef.

ATTRIBUTES COMMON TO ALL HANDLES
InactiveDestroy (boolean)

If set to true, then the "disconnect" method will not be automatically called when the database handle goes out of scope. This is required if you are forking, and even then you must tread carefully and ensure that either the parent or the child (but not both!) handles all database calls from that point forwards, so that messages from the Postgres backend are only handled by one of the processes. If you don't set things up properly, you will see messages such as "server closed the connection unexpectedly", and "message type 0x32 arrived from server while idle". The best solution is to either have the child process reconnect to the database with a fresh database handle, or to rewrite your application not to use forking. See the section on "Asynchronous Queries" for a way to have your script continue to work while the database is processing a request.

AutoInactiveDestroy (boolean)

The InactiveDestroy attribute, described above, needs to be explicitly set in the child process after a fork. If the code that performs the fork is in a third party module such as Sys::Syslog, this can present a problem. Use AutoInactiveDestroy to get around this problem.

RaiseError (boolean, inherited)

Forces errors to always raise an exception. Although it defaults to off, it is recommended that this be turned on, as the alternative is to check the return value of every method (prepare, execute, fetch, etc.) manually, which is easy to forget to do.

PrintError (boolean, inherited)

Forces database errors to also generate warnings, which can then be filtered with methods such as locally redefining $SIG{__WARN__} or using modules such as "CGI::Carp". This attribute is on by default.

ShowErrorStatement (boolean, inherited)

Appends information about the current statement to error messages. If placeholder information is available, adds that as well. Defaults to false.

Note that this will not work when using "do" without any arguments.

Warn (boolean, inherited)

Enables warnings. This is on by default, and should only be turned off in a local block for a short a time only when absolutely needed.

Executed (boolean, read-only)

Indicates if a handle has been executed. For database handles, this value is true after the "do" method has been called, or when one of the child statement handles has issued an "execute". Issuing a "commit" or "rollback" always resets the attribute to false for database handles. For statement handles, any call to "execute" or its variants will flip the value to true for the lifetime of the statement handle.

TraceLevel (integer, inherited)

Sets the trace level, similar to the "trace" method. See the sections on "trace" and parse_trace_flag for more details.

Active (boolean, read-only)

Indicates if a handle is active or not. For database handles, this indicates if the database has been disconnected or not. For statement handles, it indicates if all the data has been fetched yet or not. Use of this attribute is not encouraged.

Kids (integer, read-only)

Returns the number of child processes created for each handle type. For a driver handle, indicates the number of database handles created. For a database handle, indicates the number of statement handles created. For statement handles, it always returns zero, because statement handles do not create kids.

ActiveKids (integer, read-only)

Same as "Kids", but only returns those that are active.

CachedKids (hash ref)

Returns a hashref of handles. If called on a database handle, returns all statement handles created by use of the "prepare_cached" method. If called on a driver handle, returns all database handles created by the "connect_cached" method.

ChildHandles (array ref)

Implemented by DBI, no driver-specific impact.

PrintWarn (boolean, inherited)

Implemented by DBI, no driver-specific impact.

HandleError (boolean, inherited)

Implemented by DBI, no driver-specific impact.

HandleSetErr (code ref, inherited)

Implemented by DBI, no driver-specific impact.

ErrCount (unsigned integer)

Implemented by DBI, no driver-specific impact.

FetchHashKeyName (string, inherited)

Implemented by DBI, no driver-specific impact.

ChopBlanks (boolean, inherited)

Supported by DBD::Pg as proposed by DBI. This method is similar to the SQL function "RTRIM".

Taint (boolean, inherited)

Implemented by DBI, no driver-specific impact.

TaintIn (boolean, inherited)

Implemented by DBI, no driver-specific impact.

TaintOut (boolean, inherited)

Implemented by DBI, no driver-specific impact.

Profile (inherited)

Implemented by DBI, no driver-specific impact.

Type (scalar)

Returns "dr" for a driver handle, "db" for a database handle, and "st" for a statement handle. Should be rarely needed.

LongReadLen

Not used by DBD::Pg

LongTruncOk

Not used by DBD::Pg

CompatMode

Not used by DBD::Pg

DBI DATABASE HANDLE OBJECTS

  Database Handle Methods
selectall_arrayref

  $ary_ref = $dbh->selectall_arrayref($sql);
  $ary_ref = $dbh->selectall_arrayref($sql, \%attr);
  $ary_ref = $dbh->selectall_arrayref($sql, \%attr, @bind_values);

Returns a reference to an array containing the rows returned by preparing and executing the SQL string. See the DBI documentation for full details.

selectall_hashref

  $hash_ref = $dbh->selectall_hashref($sql, $key_field);

Returns a reference to a hash containing the rows returned by preparing and executing the SQL string. See the DBI documentation for full details.

selectcol_arrayref

  $ary_ref = $dbh->selectcol_arrayref($sql, \%attr, @bind_values);

Returns a reference to an array containing the first column from each rows returned by preparing and executing the SQL string. It is possible to specify exactly which columns to return. See the DBI documentation for full details.

prepare

  $sth = $dbh->prepare($statement, \%attr);

WARNING: DBD::Pg now (as of version 1.40) uses true prepared statements by sending them to the backend to be prepared by the Postgres server. Statements that were legal before may no longer work. See below for details.

The prepare method prepares a statement for later execution. PostgreSQL supports prepared statements, which enables DBD::Pg to only send the query once, and simply send the arguments for every subsequent call to "execute". DBD::Pg can use these server-side prepared statements, or it can just send the entire query to the server each time. The best way is automatically chosen for each query. This will be sufficient for most users: keep reading for a more detailed explanation and some optional flags.

Queries that do not begin with the word "SELECT", "INSERT", "UPDATE", or "DELETE" are never sent as server-side prepared statements.

Deciding whether or not to use prepared statements depends on many factors, but you can force them to be used or not used by using the pg_server_prepare attribute when calling "prepare". Setting this to false means to never use prepared statements. Setting pg_server_prepare to true means that prepared statements should be used whenever possible. This is the default.

The pg_server_prepare attribute can also be set at connection time like so:

  $dbh = DBI->connect($DBNAME, $DBUSER, $DBPASS,
                      { AutoCommit => 0,
                        RaiseError => 1,
                        pg_server_prepare => 0,
                      });

or you may set it after your database handle is created:

  $dbh->{pg_server_prepare} = 1;

To enable it for just one particular statement:

  $sth = $dbh->prepare("SELECT id FROM mytable WHERE val = ?",
                       { pg_server_prepare => 1 });

You can even toggle between the two as you go:

  $sth->{pg_server_prepare} = 1;
  $sth->execute(22);
  $sth->{pg_server_prepare} = 0;
  $sth->execute(44);
  $sth->{pg_server_prepare} = 1;
  $sth->execute(66);

In the above example, the first execute will use the previously prepared statement. The second execute will not, but will build the query into a single string and send it to the server. The third one will act like the first and only send the arguments. Even if you toggle back and forth, a statement is only prepared once.

Using prepared statements is in theory quite a bit faster: not only does the PostgreSQL backend only have to prepare the query only once, but DBD::Pg no longer has to worry about quoting each value before sending it to the server.

However, there are some drawbacks. The server cannot always choose the ideal parse plan because it will not know the arguments before hand. But for most situations in which you will be executing similar data many times, the default plan will probably work out well. Programs such as PgBouncer which cache connections at a low level should not use prepared statements via DBD::Pg, or must take extra care in the application to account for the fact that prepared statements are not shared across database connections. Further discussion on this subject is beyond the scope of this documentation: please consult the pgsql-performance mailing list, <http://archives.postgresql.org/pgsql-performance/>

Only certain commands will be sent to a server-side prepare: currently these include "SELECT", "INSERT", "UPDATE", and "DELETE". DBD::Pg uses a simple naming scheme for the prepared statements themselves: dbdpg_XY_Z, where Y is the current PID, X is either 'p' or 'n' (depending on if the PID is a positive or negative number), and Z is a number that starts at 1 and increases each time a new statement is prepared. This number is tracked at the database handle level, so multiple statement handles will not collide.

You cannot send more than one command at a time in the same prepare command (by separating them with semi-colons) when using server-side prepares.

The actual "PREPARE" is usually not performed until the first execute is called, due to the fact that information on the data types (provided by "bind_param") may be provided after the prepare but before the execute.

A server-side prepare may happen before the first "execute", but only if the server can handle the server-side prepare, and the statement contains no placeholders. It will also be prepared if the pg_prepare_now attribute is passed in and set to a true value. Similarly, the pg_prepare_now attribute can be set to 0 to ensure that the statement is not prepared immediately, although the cases in which you would want this are very rare. Finally, you can set the default behavior of all prepare statements by setting the pg_prepare_now attribute on the database handle:

  $dbh->{pg_prepare_now} = 1;

The following two examples will be prepared right away:

  $sth->prepare("SELECT 123"); ## no placeholders

  $sth->prepare("SELECT 123, ?", {pg_prepare_now => 1});

The following two examples will NOT be prepared right away:

  $sth->prepare("SELECT 123, ?"); ## has a placeholder

  $sth->prepare("SELECT 123", {pg_prepare_now => 0});

There are times when you may want to prepare a statement yourself. To do this, simply send the "PREPARE" statement directly to the server (e.g. with the "do" method). Create a statement handle and set the prepared name via the pg_prepare_name attribute. The statement handle can be created with a dummy statement, as it will not be executed. However, it should have the same number of placeholders as your prepared statement. Example:

  $dbh->do('PREPARE mystat AS SELECT COUNT(*) FROM pg_class WHERE reltuples < ?');
  $sth = $dbh->prepare('SELECT ?');
  $sth->bind_param(1, 1, SQL_INTEGER);
  $sth->{pg_prepare_name} = 'mystat';
  $sth->execute(123);

The above will run the equivalent of this query on the backend:

  EXECUTE mystat(123);

which is the equivalent of:

  SELECT COUNT(*) FROM pg_class WHERE reltuples < 123;

You can force DBD::Pg to send your query directly to the server by adding the pg_direct attribute to your prepare call. This is not recommended, but is added just in case you need it.

Placeholders

There are three types of placeholders that can be used in DBD::Pg. The first is the "question mark" type, in which each placeholder is represented by a single question mark character. This is the method recommended by the DBI specs and is the most portable. Each question mark is internally replaced by a "dollar sign number" in the order in which they appear in the query (important when using "bind_param").

The second type of placeholder is "dollar sign numbers". This is the method that Postgres uses internally and is overall probably the best method to use if you do not need compatibility with other database systems. DBD::Pg, like PostgreSQL, allows the same number to be used more than once in the query. Numbers must start with "1" and increment by one value (but can appear in any order within the query). If the same number appears more than once in a query, it is treated as a single parameter and all instances are replaced at once. Examples:

Not legal:

  $SQL = 'SELECT count(*) FROM pg_class WHERE relpages > $2'; # Does not start with 1

  $SQL = 'SELECT count(*) FROM pg_class WHERE relpages BETWEEN $1 AND $3'; # Missing 2

Legal:

  $SQL = 'SELECT count(*) FROM pg_class WHERE relpages > $1';

  $SQL = 'SELECT count(*) FROM pg_class WHERE relpages BETWEEN $1 AND $2';

  $SQL = 'SELECT count(*) FROM pg_class WHERE relpages BETWEEN $2 AND $1'; # legal but confusing

  $SQL = 'SELECT count(*) FROM pg_class WHERE relpages BETWEEN $1 AND $2 AND reltuples > $1';

  $SQL = 'SELECT count(*) FROM pg_class WHERE relpages > $1 AND reltuples > $1';

In the final statement above, DBI thinks there is only one placeholder, so this statement will replace both placeholders:

  $sth->bind_param(1, 2045);

While a simple execute with no bind_param calls requires only a single argument as well:

  $sth->execute(2045);

The final placeholder type is "named parameters" in the format ":foo". While this syntax is supported by DBD::Pg, its use is discouraged in favor of dollar-sign numbers.

The different types of placeholders cannot be mixed within a statement, but you may use different ones for each statement handle you have. This is confusing at best, so stick to one style within your program.

If your queries use operators that contain question marks (e.g. some of the native Postgres geometric operators and JSON operators) or array slices (e.g. "data[100:300]"), there are methods to instruct DBD::Pg to not treat some symbols as placeholders. First, you may simply add a backslash before the start of a placeholder, and DBD::Pg will strip the backslash and not treat the character as a placeholder.

You can also tell DBD::Pg to ignore any non-dollar sign placeholders by setting the pg_placeholder_dollaronly attribute at either the database handle or the statement handle level. Examples:

  $dbh->{pg_placeholder_dollaronly} = 1;
  $sth = $dbh->prepare(q{SELECT * FROM mytable WHERE lseg1 ?# lseg2 AND name = $1});
  $sth->execute('segname');

Alternatively, you can set it at prepare time:

  $sth = $dbh->prepare(q{SELECT * FROM mytable WHERE lseg1 ?-| lseg2 AND name = $1},
    {pg_placeholder_dollaronly => 1});
  $sth->execute('segname');

If your queries use array slices but you still want to use question marks as placeholders, you can tell DBD::Pg to ignore just colon placeholders by setting the "pg_placeholder_nocolons" attribute in the same way. Examples:

  $dbh->{pg_placeholder_nocolons} = 1;
  $sth = $dbh->prepare(q{SELECT array[1:2] FROM mytable WHERE id = ?});
  $sth->execute(1);

Again, you may set it at prepare time as well:

  $sth = $dbh->prepare(q{SELECT array[1:2] FROM mytable WHERE id = ?},
    {pg_placeholder_nocolons => 1});
  $sth->execute(1);

It should be noted that placeholders only work when used outside of a literal string context; i.e., the following examples will not define/use any placeholders due to appearing inside strings within the SQL:

  $sth = $dbh->prepare(q{SELECT id FROM mytable WHERE text LIKE '%?'});
  $dbh->do(q{DO LANGUAGE plpgsql $$ BEGIN RAISE NOTICE ?; END $$}, undef, $message);

See the DBI placeholder documentation for more details.

prepare_cached

  $sth = $dbh->prepare_cached($statement, \%attr);

Implemented by DBI, no driver-specific impact. This method is most useful when using a server that supports server-side prepares, and you have asked the prepare to happen immediately via the pg_prepare_now attribute.

do

  $rv = $dbh->do($statement);
  $rv = $dbh->do($statement, \%attr);
  $rv = $dbh->do($statement, \%attr, @bind_values);

Prepare and execute a single statement. Returns the number of rows affected if the query was successful, returns undef if an error occurred, and returns -1 if the number of rows is unknown or not available. Note that this method will return 0E0 instead of 0 for 'no rows were affected', in order to always return a true value if no error occurred.

If neither "\%attr" nor @bind_values is given, the query will be sent directly to the server without the overhead of internally creating a statement handle and running prepare and execute, for a measurable speed increase.

Note that an empty statement (a string with no length) will not be passed to the server; if you want a simple test, use "SELECT 123" or the "ping" method.

last_insert_id

  $rv = $dbh->last_insert_id(undef, $schema, $table, undef);
  $rv = $dbh->last_insert_id(undef, $schema, $table, undef, {sequence => $seqname});

Attempts to return the id of the last value to be inserted into a table. You can either provide a sequence name (preferred) or provide a table name with optional schema, and DBD::Pg will attempt to find the sequence itself. The current value of the sequence is returned by a call to the CURRVAL() PostgreSQL function. This will fail if the sequence has not yet been used in the current database connection.

If you do not know the name of the sequence, you can provide a table name and DBD::Pg will attempt to return the correct value. To do this, there must be at least one column in the table with a "NOT NULL" constraint, that has a unique constraint, and which uses a sequence as a default value (either manually, or via the "SERIAL" pseudotype or "GENERATED ... AS IDENTITY"). If more than one column meets these conditions, the primary key will be used. This involves some looking up of things in the system table, so DBD::Pg will cache the sequence name for subsequent calls. If you need to disable this caching for some reason, (such as the sequence name changing), you can control it by adding "pg_cache => 0" to the final (hashref) argument for last_insert_id.

Please keep in mind that this method is far from foolproof, so make your script use it properly. Specifically, make sure that it is called immediately after the insert, and that the insert does not add a value to the column that is using the sequence as a default value. However, because we are using sequences, you can be sure that the value you got back has not been used by any other process.

Some examples:

  $dbh->do('CREATE SEQUENCE lii_seq START 1');
  $dbh->do(q{CREATE TABLE lii (
    foobar INTEGER NOT NULL UNIQUE DEFAULT nextval('lii_seq'),
    baz VARCHAR)});
  $SQL = 'INSERT INTO lii(baz) VALUES (?)';
  $sth = $dbh->prepare($SQL);
  for (qw(uno dos tres cuatro)) {
    $sth->execute($_);
    my $newid = $dbh->last_insert_id(undef,undef,undef,undef,{sequence=>'lii_seq'});
    print "Last insert id was $newid\n";
  }

If you did not want to worry about the sequence name:

  $dbh->do('CREATE TABLE lii2 (
    foobar SERIAL UNIQUE,
    baz VARCHAR)');
  $SQL = 'INSERT INTO lii2(baz) VALUES (?)';
  $sth = $dbh->prepare($SQL);
  for (qw(uno dos tres cuatro)) {
    $sth->execute($_);
    my $newid = $dbh->last_insert_id(undef,undef,"lii2",undef);
    print "Last insert id was $newid\n";
  }

commit

  $rv = $dbh->commit;

Issues a COMMIT to the server, indicating that the current transaction is finished and that all changes made will be visible to other processes. If AutoCommit is enabled, then a warning is given and no COMMIT is issued. Returns true on success, false on error. See also the section on "Transactions".

rollback

  $rv = $dbh->rollback;

Issues a ROLLBACK to the server, which discards any changes made in the current transaction. If AutoCommit is enabled, then a warning is given and no ROLLBACK is issued. Returns true on success, and false on error. See also the the section on "Transactions".

begin_work

This method turns on transactions until the next call to "commit" or "rollback", if AutoCommit is currently enabled. If it is not enabled, calling begin_work will issue an error. Note that the transaction will not actually begin until the first statement after begin_work is called. Example:

  $dbh->{AutoCommit} = 1;
  $dbh->do('INSERT INTO foo VALUES (123)'); ## Changes committed immediately
  $dbh->begin_work();
  ## Not in a transaction yet, but AutoCommit is set to 0

  $dbh->do("INSERT INTO foo VALUES (345)");
  ## DBD::PG actually issues two statements here:
  ## BEGIN;
  ## INSERT INTO foo VALUES (345)
  ## We are now in a transaction

  $dbh->commit();
  ## AutoCommit is now set to 1 again

disconnect

  $rv = $dbh->disconnect;

Disconnects from the Postgres database. Any uncommitted changes will be rolled back upon disconnection. It's good policy to always explicitly call commit or rollback at some point before disconnecting, rather than relying on the default rollback behavior.

This method may give warnings about "disconnect invalidates X active statement handle(s)". This means that you called "$sth->execute()" but did not finish fetching all the rows from them. To avoid seeing this warning, either fetch all the rows or call "$sth->finish()" for each executed statement handle.

If the script exits before disconnect is called (or, more precisely, if the database handle is no longer referenced by anything), then the database handle's DESTROY method will call the rollback() and disconnect() methods automatically. It is best to explicitly disconnect rather than rely on this behavior.

quote

  $rv = $dbh->quote($value, $data_type);

This module implements its own "quote" method. For simple string types, both backslashes and single quotes are doubled. You may also quote arrayrefs and receive a string suitable for passing into Postgres array columns.

If the value contains backslashes, and the server is version 8.1 or higher, then the escaped string syntax will be used (which places a capital E before the first single quote). This syntax is always used when quoting bytea values on servers 8.1 and higher.

The "data_type" argument is optional and should be one of the type constants exported by DBD::Pg (such as PG_BYTEA). In addition to string, bytea, char, bool, and other standard types, the following geometric types are supported: point, line, lseg, box, path, polygon, and circle (PG_POINT, PG_LINE, PG_LSEG, PG_BOX, PG_PATH, PG_POLYGON, and PG_CIRCLE respectively). To quote a Postgres-specific data type, you must use a 'hashref' argument like so:

  my $quotedval = $dbh->quote($value, { pg_type => PG_VARCHAR });

NOTE: The undocumented (and invalid) support for the "SQL_BINARY" data type is officially deprecated. Use "PG_BYTEA" with bind_param() instead:

  $rv = $sth->bind_param($param_num, $bind_value,
                         { pg_type => PG_BYTEA });

quote_identifier

  $string = $dbh->quote_identifier( $name );
  $string = $dbh->quote_identifier( undef, $schema, $table);

Returns a quoted version of the supplied string, which is commonly a schema, table, or column name. The three argument form will return the schema and the table together, separated by a dot. Examples:

  print $dbh->quote_identifier('grapefruit'); ## Prints: "grapefruit"

  print $dbh->quote_identifier('juicy fruit'); ## Prints: "juicy fruit"

  print $dbh->quote_identifier(undef, 'public', 'pg_proc');
  ## Prints: "public"."pg_proc"

pg_notifies

  $ret = $dbh->pg_notifies;

Looks for any asynchronous notifications received and returns either "undef" or a reference to a three-element array consisting of an event name, the PID of the backend that sent the NOTIFY command, and the optional payload string. Note that this does not check if the connection to the database is still valid first - for that, use the "ping" method. You may need to commit if not in autocommit mode - new notices will not be picked up while in the middle of a transaction. An example:

  $dbh->do("LISTEN abc");
  $dbh->do("LISTEN def");

  ## Hang around until we get the message we want
  LISTENLOOP: {
    while (my $notify = $dbh->pg_notifies) {
      my ($name, $pid, $payload) = @$notify;
      print qq{I received notice "$name" from PID $pid, payload was "$payload"\n};
      ## Do something based on the notice received
    }
    $dbh->ping() or die qq{Ping failed!};
    $dbh->commit();
    sleep(5);
    redo;
  }

Payloads will always be an empty string unless you are connecting to a Postgres server version 9.0 or higher.

ping

  $rv = $dbh->ping;

The "ping" method determines if there is a working connection to an active database server. It does this by sending a small query to the server, currently 'DBD::Pg ping test v3.17.0'. It returns 0 (false) if the connection is not valid, otherwise it returns a positive number (true). The value returned indicates the current state:

  Value    Meaning
  --------------------------------------------------
    1      Database is idle (not in a transaction)
    2      Database is active, there is a command in progress (usually seen after a COPY command)
    3      Database is idle within a transaction
    4      Database is idle, within a failed transaction

Additional information on why a handle is not valid can be obtained by using the "pg_ping" method.

pg_ping

  $rv = $dbh->pg_ping;

This is a DBD::Pg-specific extension to the "ping" method. This will check the validity of a database handle in exactly the same way as "ping", but instead of returning a 0 for an invalid connection, it will return a negative number. So in addition to returning the positive numbers documented for "ping", it may also return the following:

  Value    Meaning
  --------------------------------------------------
   -1      There is no connection to the database at all (e.g. after disconnect)
   -2      An unknown transaction status was returned (e.g. after forking)
   -3      The test query failed (PQexec returned null)
   -4      PQstatus returned a CONNECTION_BAD

pg_error_field

  $value = $dbh->pg_error_field('context');

The pg_error_field returns specific information about the last error that occurred. It needs to be called as soon as possible after an error occurs, as any other query sent to Postgres (via $dbh or $sth) will reset all the error information. Note that this is called at the database handle ($dbh) level, but can return errors that occurred via both database handles (e.g. $dbh->do) and statement handles (e.g. $sth->execute). It takes a single argument, indicating which field to return. The value returned will be undef if the previous command was not an error, or if the field is not applicable to the current error.

The canonical list of field types can be found at:

<https://www.postgresql.org/docs/current/libpq-exec.html#LIBPQ-PQRESULTERRORFIELD>

The literal names on that page can be used (e.g. PG_DIAG_STATEMENT_HINT), but lowercase is accepted too, as well as the following abbreviated forms:

severity
severity_nonlocal (only for Postgres 10 and above)
state
primary
detail (does not work well for Postgres < 9.2)
hint
statement_position
internal_position
internal_query
context
schema (only for Postgres 9.3 and above)
table (only for Postgres 9.3 and above)
column (only for Postgres 9.3 and above)
type (only for Postgres 9.3 and above)
constraint (only for Postgres 9.3 and above)
source_file
source_line
source_function

get_info

  $value = $dbh->get_info($info_type);

Supports a very large set (> 250) of the information types, including the minimum recommended by DBI.

Items of note:

SQL_KEYWORDS
    This returns all items reserved by Postgres but NOT reserved by SQL:2011 standard. See:

    http://www.postgresql.org/docs/current/static/sql-keywords-appendix.htm

table_info

  $sth = $dbh->table_info(undef, $schema, $table, $type);

Returns all tables and views visible to the current user. The schema and table arguments will do a "LIKE" search if a percent sign ("%") or an underscore ("_") is detected in the argument. The $type argument accepts any comma-separated combination of "TABLE", "VIEW", "SYSTEM TABLE", "SYSTEM VIEW", "MATERIALIZED VIEW", "SYSTEM MATERIALIZED VIEW", "FOREIGN TABLE", "SYSTEM FOREIGN TABLE", or "LOCAL TEMPORARY". (Using all is the default action.)

Note that a statement handle is returned, and not a direct list of tables. See the examples below for ways to handle this.

The following fields are returned:

TABLE_CAT: The name of the database that the table or view is in (always the current database).

TABLE_SCHEM: The name of the schema that the table or view is in.

TABLE_NAME: The name of the table or view.

TABLE_TYPE: The type of object returned. Will be one of "TABLE", "VIEW", "MATERIALIZED VIEW", "SYSTEM VIEW", "SYSTEM MATERIALIZED VIEW", "SYSTEM TABLE", "FOREIGN TABLE", "SYSTEM FOREIGN TABLE", or "LOCAL TEMPORARY".

The TABLE_SCHEM and TABLE_NAME will be quoted via quote_ident().

Four additional fields specific to DBD::Pg are returned:

pg_schema: the unquoted name of the schema

pg_table: the unquoted name of the table

pg_tablespace_name: the name of the tablespace the table is in

pg_tablespace_location: the location of the tablespace the table is in

Tables that have not been assigned to a particular tablespace (or views) will return NULL ("undef") for both of the above field.

Rows are returned alphabetically, with all tables first, and then all views.

Examples of use:

  ## Display all tables and views in the public schema:
  $sth = $dbh->table_info('', 'public', undef, undef);
  for my $rel (@{$sth->fetchall_arrayref({})}) {
    print "$rel->{TABLE_TYPE} name is $rel->{TABLE_NAME}\n";
  }

  # Display the schema of all tables named 'foo':
  $sth = $dbh->table_info('', undef, 'foo', 'TABLE');
  for my $rel (@{$sth->fetchall_arrayref({})}) {
    print "Table name is $rel->{TABLE_SCHEM}.$rel->{TABLE_NAME}\n";
  }

column_info

  $sth = $dbh->column_info( undef, $schema, $table, $column );

Supported by this driver as proposed by DBI with the follow exceptions. These fields are currently always returned with NULL ("undef") values:

   BUFFER_LENGTH
   DECIMAL_DIGITS
   NUM_PREC_RADIX
   SQL_DATA_TYPE
   SQL_DATETIME_SUB
   CHAR_OCTET_LENGTH

Also, six additional non-standard fields are returned:

pg_type: data type with additional info i.e. "character varying(20)"

pg_constraint: holds column constraint definition

pg_schema: the unquoted name of the schema

pg_table: the unquoted name of the table

pg_column: the unquoted name of the column

pg_enum_values: an array reference of allowed values for an enum column

Note that the TABLE_SCHEM, TABLE_NAME, and COLUMN_NAME fields all return output wrapped in quote_ident(). If you need the unquoted version, use the pg_ fields above.

primary_key_info

  $sth = $dbh->primary_key_info( undef, $schema, $table, \%attr );

Supported by this driver as proposed by DBI. There are no search patterns allowed, but leaving the $schema argument blank will cause the first table found in the schema search path to be used. An additional field, "DATA_TYPE", is returned and shows the data type for each of the arguments in the "COLUMN_NAME" field.

This method will also return tablespace information for servers that support tablespaces. See the "table_info" entry for more information.

The five additional custom fields returned are:

pg_tablespace_name: name of the tablespace, if any

pg_tablespace_location: location of the tablespace

pg_schema: the unquoted name of the schema

pg_table: the unquoted name of the table

pg_column: the unquoted name of the column

In addition to the standard format of returning one row for each column found for the primary key, you can pass the "pg_onerow" attribute to force a single row to be used. If the primary key has multiple columns, the "KEY_SEQ", "COLUMN_NAME", and "DATA_TYPE" fields will return a comma-delimited string. If the "pg_onerow" attribute is set to "2", the fields will be returned as an arrayref, which can be useful when multiple columns are involved:

  $sth = $dbh->primary_key_info('', '', 'dbd_pg_test', {pg_onerow => 2});
  if (defined $sth) {
    my $pk = $sth->fetchall_arrayref()->[0];
    print "Table $pk->[2] has a primary key on these columns:\n";
    for (my $x=0; defined $pk->[3][$x]; $x++) {
      print "Column: $pk->[3][$x]  (data type: $pk->[6][$x])\n";
    }
  }

primary_key

  @key_column_names = $dbh->primary_key(undef, $schema, $table);

Simple interface to the "primary_key_info" method. Returns a list of the column names that comprise the primary key of the specified table. The list is in primary key column sequence order. If there is no primary key then an empty list is returned.

foreign_key_info

  $sth = $dbh->foreign_key_info( $pk_catalog, $pk_schema, $pk_table,
                                 $fk_catalog, $fk_schema, $fk_table );

Supported by this driver as proposed by DBI, using the SQL/CLI variant. There are no search patterns allowed, but leaving the $schema argument blank will cause the first table found in the schema search path to be used. Two additional fields, "UK_DATA_TYPE" and "FK_DATA_TYPE", are returned to show the data type for the unique and foreign key columns. Foreign keys that have no named constraint (where the referenced column only has an unique index) will return "undef" for the "UK_NAME" field.

statistics_info

  $sth = $dbh->statistics_info( undef, $schema, $table, $unique_only, $quick );

Returns a statement handle that can be fetched from to give statistics information on a specific table and its indexes. The $table argument is mandatory. The $schema argument is optional but recommended. The $unique_only argument, if true, causes only information about unique indexes to be returned. The $quick argument is not used by DBD::Pg. For information on the format of the standard rows returned, please see the DBI documentation.

DBI section on statistics_info

In addition, the following Postgres specific columns are returned:

pg_expression
    Postgres allows indexes on functions and scalar expressions based on one or more columns. This field will always be populated if an index, but the lack of an entry in the COLUMN_NAME should indicate that this is an index expression.

pg_is_key_column
    Postgres (since version 11) allows including non-key columns in indexes so they can be retrieved by index-only scans. This field will be false for such columns, and true for normal index columns.

pg_null_ordering
    In addition to "ASC" and "DESC", Postgres supports specifying "NULLS FIRST" or "NULLS LAST" for index columns. For columns of indexes that support ordering, this field will be "first" or "last", otherwise it will be "undef";

tables

  @names = $dbh->tables( undef, $schema, $table, $type, \%attr );

Supported by this driver as proposed by DBI. This method returns all tables and/or views (including foreign tables and materialized views) which are visible to the current user: see "table_info" for more information about the arguments. The name of the schema appears before the table or view name. This can be turned off by adding in the "pg_noprefix" attribute:

  my @tables = $dbh->tables( '', '', 'dbd_pg_test', '', {pg_noprefix => 1} );

type_info_all

  $type_info_all = $dbh->type_info_all;

Supported by this driver as proposed by DBI. Information is only provided for SQL datatypes and for frequently used datatypes. The mapping between the PostgreSQL typename and the SQL92 datatype (if possible) has been done according to the following table:

  +---------------+------------------------------------+
  | typname       | SQL92                              |
  |---------------+------------------------------------|
  | bool          | BOOL                               |
  | text          | /                                  |
  | bpchar        | CHAR(n)                            |
  | varchar       | VARCHAR(n)                         |
  | int2          | SMALLINT                           |
  | int4          | INT                                |
  | int8          | BIGINT                             |
  | money         | /                                  |
  | float4        | FLOAT(p)   p<7=float4, p<16=float8 |
  | float8        | REAL                               |
  | abstime       | /                                  |
  | reltime       | /                                  |
  | tinterval     | /                                  |
  | date          | /                                  |
  | time          | /                                  |
  | datetime      | /                                  |
  | timespan      | TINTERVAL                          |
  | timestamp     | TIMESTAMP                          |
  +---------------+------------------------------------+

type_info

  @type_info = $dbh->type_info($data_type);

Returns a list of hash references holding information about one or more variants of $data_type. See the DBI documentation for more details.

pg_server_trace

  $dbh->pg_server_trace($filehandle);

Writes debugging information from the PostgreSQL backend to a file. This is not related to the DBI "trace" method and you should not use this method unless you know what you are doing. If you do enable this, be aware that the file will grow very large, very quick. To stop logging to the file, use the "pg_server_untrace" method. The first argument must be a file handle, not a filename. Example:

  my $pid = $dbh->{pg_pid};
  my $file = "pgbackend.$pid.debug.log";
  open(my $fh, ">$file") or die qq{Could not open "$file": $!\n};
  $dbh->pg_server_trace($fh);
  ## Run code you want to trace here
  $dbh->pg_server_untrace;
  close($fh);

pg_server_untrace

  $dbh->pg_server_untrace;

Stop server logging to a previously opened file.

selectrow_array

  @row_ary = $dbh->selectrow_array($sql);
  @row_ary = $dbh->selectrow_array($sql, \%attr);
  @row_ary = $dbh->selectrow_array($sql, \%attr, @bind_values);

Returns an array of row information after preparing and executing the provided SQL string. The rows are returned by calling "fetchrow_array". The string can also be a statement handle generated by a previous prepare. Note that only the first row of data is returned. If called in a scalar context, only the first column of the first row is returned. Because this is not portable, it is not recommended that you use this method in that way.

selectrow_arrayref

  $ary_ref = $dbh->selectrow_arrayref($statement);
  $ary_ref = $dbh->selectrow_arrayref($statement, \%attr);
  $ary_ref = $dbh->selectrow_arrayref($statement, \%attr, @bind_values);

Exactly the same as "selectrow_array", except that it returns a reference to an array, by internal use of the "fetchrow_arrayref" method.

selectrow_hashref

  $hash_ref = $dbh->selectrow_hashref($sql);
  $hash_ref = $dbh->selectrow_hashref($sql, \%attr);
  $hash_ref = $dbh->selectrow_hashref($sql, \%attr, @bind_values);

Exactly the same as "selectrow_array", except that it returns a reference to an hash, by internal use of the "fetchrow_hashref" method.

clone

  $other_dbh = $dbh->clone();

Creates a copy of the database handle by connecting with the same parameters as the original handle, then trying to merge the attributes. See the DBI documentation for complete usage.

  Database Handle Attributes
AutoCommit (boolean)

Supported by DBD::Pg as proposed by DBI. According to the classification of DBI, PostgreSQL is a database in which a transaction must be explicitly started. Without starting a transaction, every change to the database becomes immediately permanent. The default of AutoCommit is on, but this may change in the future, so it is highly recommended that you explicitly set it when calling "connect". For details see the notes about "Transactions" elsewhere in this document.

ParamValues (hash ref, read-only)

Ignored unless inside a "do" method call. There it is temporarily aliased to the "ParamValues" hash from the temporary statement handle inside an internal "prepare / execute / fetch" routine, invisible from outside, and is treated correspondingly (see "ParamValues" in "Statement Handle Attributes"). This allows for correct reporting of values bound to placeholders to the caller, should the query fail (see "ShowErrorStatement").

pg_bool_tf (boolean)

DBD::Pg specific attribute. If true, boolean values will be returned as the characters 't' and 'f' instead of '1' and '0'.

ReadOnly (boolean)

$dbh->{ReadOnly} = 1;

Specifies if the current database connection should be in read-only mode or not. In this mode, changes that change the database are not allowed and will throw an error. Note: this method will not work if "AutoCommit" is true. The read-only effect is accomplished by sending a SET TRANSACTION READ ONLY after every begin. For more details, please see:

http://www.postgresql.org/docs/current/interactive/sql-set-transaction.html

Please not that this method is not foolproof: there are still ways to update the database. Consider this a safety net to catch applications that should not be issuing commands such as INSERT, UPDATE, or DELETE.

This method requires DBI version 1.55 or better.

pg_server_prepare (boolean)

DBD::Pg specific attribute. Indicates if DBD::Pg should attempt to use server-side prepared statements. The default value, true, indicates that prepared statements should be used whenever possible. See the section on the "prepare" method for more information.

pg_switch_prepared (integer)

DBD::Pg specific attribute. Indicates when DBD::Pg will internally switch from using PQexecParams to PQexecPrepared. In other words, when it will start using server-side prepared statements (assuming all other requirements for them are met). The default value, 2, means that a prepared statement will be prepared and used the second and subsequent time execute is called. To always use PQexecPrepared instead of PQexecParams, set pg_switch_prepared to 1 (this was the default behavior in earlier versions). Setting pg_switch_prepared to 0 will force DBD::Pg to always use PQexecParams.

pg_placeholder_dollaronly (boolean)

DBD::Pg specific attribute. Defaults to false. When true, question marks inside of statements are not treated as placeholders. Useful for statements that contain unquoted question marks, such as geometric operators. Note that you may also simply escape question marks with a backslash to prevent them from being treated as placeholders.

pg_placeholder_nocolons (boolean)

DBD::Pg specific attribute. Defaults to false. When true, colons inside of statements are not treated as placeholders. Useful for statements that contain an array slice. You may also place a backslash directly before the colon to prevent it from being treated as a placeholder.

pg_enable_utf8 (integer)

DBD::Pg specific attribute. The behavior of DBD::Pg with regards to this flag has changed as of version 3.0.0. The default value for this attribute, -1, tells DBD::Pg to UTF8-decode all strings coming back from the database if the client_encoding is set to "UTF8". Use of this default is highly encouraged. If your code was previously using pg_enable_utf8, you can probably remove mention of it entirely.

If this attribute is set to 0, then DBD::Pg will never UTF8-decode returned data, regardless of the current client_encoding.

If this attribute is set to 1, then DBD::Pg will always UTF8-decode returned data, regardless of the current client_encoding (with the exception of bytea data).

Note that the value of client_encoding is only checked on connection time. If you change the client_encoding to/from 'UTF8' after connecting, you can set pg_enable_utf8 to -1 to force DBD::Pg to read in the new client_encoding and act accordingly.

pg_int8_as_string (integer)

DBD::Pg specific attribute. Since version 3.0.0 the processing of SQL_INT8 has changed, before that 64 bit values were returned as strings, starting from version 3.0.0 64 bit values are returned as numbers. This flag makes it possible to return the old behavior. The old behavior is useful when encoding the results of a call in JSON format and passing it to JavaScript for processing, where integer values have a precision of no more than 53 bits.

pg_skip_deallocate (integer)

DBD::Pg specific attribute. By default this is false, and causes prepared statements created by us to be deallocated when no longer needed (i.e. when the handle is destroyed). By setting this to true, this deallocation is skipped entirely. This is useful when there is something else taking over responsibility for prepared statements.

pg_errorlevel (integer)

DBD::Pg specific attribute. Sets the amount of information returned by the server's error messages. Valid entries are 0, 1, and 2. Any other number will be forced to the default value of 1.

A value of 0 ("TERSE") will show severity, primary text, and position only and will usually fit on a single line. A value of 1 ("DEFAULT") will also show any detail, hint, or context fields. A value of 2 ("VERBOSE") will show all available information.

pg_lib_version (integer, read-only)

DBD::Pg specific attribute. Indicates which version of PostgreSQL that DBD::Pg was compiled against. In other words, which libraries were used. Returns a number with major, minor, and revision together; version 8.1.4 would be returned as 80104.

pg_server_version (integer, read-only)

DBD::Pg specific attribute. Indicates which version of PostgreSQL that the current database handle is connected to. Returns a number with major, minor, and revision together; version 8.0.1 would be 80001.

Name (string, read-only)

Returns the name of the current database. This is the same as the DSN, without the "dbi:Pg:" part. Before version 2.0.0, this only returned the bare database name (e.g. 'foo'). From version 2.0.0 onwards, it returns the more correct output (e.g. 'dbname=foo')

Username (string, read-only)

Returns the name of the user connected to the database.

pg_db (string, read-only)

DBD::Pg specific attribute. Returns the name of the current database.

pg_user (string, read-only)

DBD::Pg specific attribute. Returns the name of the user that connected to the server.

pg_host (string, read-only)

DBD::Pg specific attribute. Returns the host of the current server connection. Locally connected hosts will return an empty string.

pg_port (integer, read-only)

DBD::Pg specific attribute. Returns the port of the connection to the server.

pg_socket (integer, read-only)

DBD::Pg specific attribute. Returns the file description number of the connection socket to the server.

pg_pass (string, read-only)

DBD::Pg specific attribute. Returns the password used to connect to the server.

pg_options (string, read-only)

DBD::Pg specific attribute. Returns the command-line options passed to the server. May be an empty string.

pg_default_port (integer, read-only)

DBD::Pg specific attribute. Returns the default port used if none is specifically given.

pg_pid (integer, read-only)

DBD::Pg specific attribute. Returns the process id (PID) of the backend server process handling the connection.

pg_prepare_now (boolean)

DBD::Pg specific attribute. Default is off. If true, then the "prepare" method will immediately prepare commands, rather than waiting until the first execute.

pg_expand_array (boolean)

DBD::Pg specific attribute. Defaults to true. If false, arrays returned from the server will not be changed into a Perl arrayref, but remain as a string.

pg_async_status (integer, read-only)

DBD::Pg specific attribute. Returns the current status of an asynchronous command. 0 indicates no asynchronous command is in progress, 1 indicates that an asynchronous command has started and -1 indicated that an asynchronous command has been cancelled.

pg_standard_conforming_strings (boolean, read-only)

DBD::Pg specific attribute. Returns true if the server is currently using standard conforming strings. Only available if the target server is version 8.2 or better.

pg_INV_READ (integer, read-only)

Constant to be used for the mode in "pg_lo_creat" and "pg_lo_open".

pg_INV_WRITE (integer, read-only)

Constant to be used for the mode in "pg_lo_creat" and "pg_lo_open".

Driver (handle, read-only)

Holds the handle of the parent driver. The only recommended use for this is to find the name of the driver using:

  $dbh->{Driver}->{Name}

pg_protocol (integer, read-only)

DBD::Pg specific attribute. Returns the version of the PostgreSQL server. If DBD::Pg is unable to figure out the version, it will return a "0". Otherwise, a "3" is returned.

RowCacheSize

Not used by DBD::Pg

DBI STATEMENT HANDLE OBJECTS

  Statement Handle Methods
bind_param

  $rv = $sth->bind_param($param_num, $bind_value);
  $rv = $sth->bind_param($param_num, $bind_value, $bind_type);
  $rv = $sth->bind_param($param_num, $bind_value, \%attr);

Allows the user to bind a value and/or a data type to a placeholder. This is especially important when using server-side prepares. See the "prepare" method for more information.

The value of $param_num is a number if using the '?' or '$1' style placeholders. If using ":foo" style placeholders, the complete name (e.g. ":foo") must be given. For numeric values, you can either use a number or use a literal '$1'. See the examples below.

The $bind_value argument is fairly self-explanatory. A value of "undef" will bind a "NULL" to the placeholder. Using "undef" is useful when you want to change just the type and will be overwriting the value later. (Any value is actually usable, but "undef" is easy and efficient).

The "\%attr" hash is used to indicate the data type of the placeholder. The default value is "varchar". If you need something else, you must use one of the values provided by DBI or by DBD::Pg. To use a SQL value, modify your "use DBI" statement at the top of your script as follows:

  use DBI qw(:sql_types);

This will import some constants into your script. You can plug those directly into the "bind_param" call. Some common ones that you will encounter are:

  SQL_INTEGER

To use PostgreSQL data types, import the list of values like this:

  use DBD::Pg qw(:pg_types);

You can then set the data types by setting the value of the "pg_type" key in the hash passed to "bind_param". The current list of Postgres data types exported is:

 PG_ACLITEM PG_ACLITEMARRAY PG_ANY PG_ANYARRAY PG_ANYCOMPATIBLE PG_ANYCOMPATIBLEARRAY
 PG_ANYCOMPATIBLEMULTIRANGE PG_ANYCOMPATIBLENONARRAY PG_ANYCOMPATIBLERANGE PG_ANYELEMENT PG_ANYENUM PG_ANYMULTIRANGE
 PG_ANYNONARRAY PG_ANYRANGE PG_BIT PG_BITARRAY PG_BOOL PG_BOOLARRAY
 PG_BOX PG_BOXARRAY PG_BPCHAR PG_BPCHARARRAY PG_BYTEA PG_BYTEAARRAY
 PG_CHAR PG_CHARARRAY PG_CID PG_CIDARRAY PG_CIDR PG_CIDRARRAY
 PG_CIRCLE PG_CIRCLEARRAY PG_CSTRING PG_CSTRINGARRAY PG_DATE PG_DATEARRAY
 PG_DATEMULTIRANGE PG_DATEMULTIRANGEARRAY PG_DATERANGE PG_DATERANGEARRAY PG_EVENT_TRIGGER PG_FDW_HANDLER
 PG_FLOAT4 PG_FLOAT4ARRAY PG_FLOAT8 PG_FLOAT8ARRAY PG_GTSVECTOR PG_GTSVECTORARRAY
 PG_INDEX_AM_HANDLER PG_INET PG_INETARRAY PG_INT2 PG_INT2ARRAY PG_INT2VECTOR
 PG_INT2VECTORARRAY PG_INT4 PG_INT4ARRAY PG_INT4MULTIRANGE PG_INT4MULTIRANGEARRAY PG_INT4RANGE
 PG_INT4RANGEARRAY PG_INT8 PG_INT8ARRAY PG_INT8MULTIRANGE PG_INT8MULTIRANGEARRAY PG_INT8RANGE
 PG_INT8RANGEARRAY PG_INTERNAL PG_INTERVAL PG_INTERVALARRAY PG_JSON PG_JSONARRAY
 PG_JSONB PG_JSONBARRAY PG_JSONPATH PG_JSONPATHARRAY PG_LANGUAGE_HANDLER PG_LINE
 PG_LINEARRAY PG_LSEG PG_LSEGARRAY PG_MACADDR PG_MACADDR8 PG_MACADDR8ARRAY
 PG_MACADDRARRAY PG_MONEY PG_MONEYARRAY PG_NAME PG_NAMEARRAY PG_NUMERIC
 PG_NUMERICARRAY PG_NUMMULTIRANGE PG_NUMMULTIRANGEARRAY PG_NUMRANGE PG_NUMRANGEARRAY PG_OID
 PG_OIDARRAY PG_OIDVECTOR PG_OIDVECTORARRAY PG_PATH PG_PATHARRAY PG_PG_ATTRIBUTE
 PG_PG_ATTRIBUTEARRAY PG_PG_BRIN_BLOOM_SUMMARY PG_PG_BRIN_MINMAX_MULTI_SUMMARY PG_PG_CLASS PG_PG_CLASSARRAY PG_PG_DDL_COMMAND
 PG_PG_DEPENDENCIES PG_PG_LSN PG_PG_LSNARRAY PG_PG_MCV_LIST PG_PG_NDISTINCT PG_PG_NODE_TREE
 PG_PG_PROC PG_PG_PROCARRAY PG_PG_SNAPSHOT PG_PG_SNAPSHOTARRAY PG_PG_TYPE PG_PG_TYPEARRAY
 PG_POINT PG_POINTARRAY PG_POLYGON PG_POLYGONARRAY PG_RECORD PG_RECORDARRAY
 PG_REFCURSOR PG_REFCURSORARRAY PG_REGCLASS PG_REGCLASSARRAY PG_REGCOLLATION PG_REGCOLLATIONARRAY
 PG_REGCONFIG PG_REGCONFIGARRAY PG_REGDICTIONARY PG_REGDICTIONARYARRAY PG_REGNAMESPACE PG_REGNAMESPACEARRAY
 PG_REGOPER PG_REGOPERARRAY PG_REGOPERATOR PG_REGOPERATORARRAY PG_REGPROC PG_REGPROCARRAY
 PG_REGPROCEDURE PG_REGPROCEDUREARRAY PG_REGROLE PG_REGROLEARRAY PG_REGTYPE PG_REGTYPEARRAY
 PG_TABLE_AM_HANDLER PG_TEXT PG_TEXTARRAY PG_TID PG_TIDARRAY PG_TIME
 PG_TIMEARRAY PG_TIMESTAMP PG_TIMESTAMPARRAY PG_TIMESTAMPTZ PG_TIMESTAMPTZARRAY PG_TIMETZ
 PG_TIMETZARRAY PG_TRIGGER PG_TSMULTIRANGE PG_TSMULTIRANGEARRAY PG_TSM_HANDLER PG_TSQUERY
 PG_TSQUERYARRAY PG_TSRANGE PG_TSRANGEARRAY PG_TSTZMULTIRANGE PG_TSTZMULTIRANGEARRAY PG_TSTZRANGE
 PG_TSTZRANGEARRAY PG_TSVECTOR PG_TSVECTORARRAY PG_TXID_SNAPSHOT PG_TXID_SNAPSHOTARRAY PG_UNKNOWN
 PG_UUID PG_UUIDARRAY PG_VARBIT PG_VARBITARRAY PG_VARCHAR PG_VARCHARARRAY
 PG_VOID PG_XID PG_XID8 PG_XID8ARRAY PG_XIDARRAY PG_XML
 PG_XMLARRAY

Be warned that PG_CHAR is probably not what you think it is. When in doubt, use PG_TEXT for anything storing a non-numeric string.

Data types are "sticky," in that once a data type is set to a certain placeholder, it will remain for that placeholder, unless it is explicitly set to something else afterwards. If the statement has already been prepared, and you switch the data type to something else, DBD::Pg will re-prepare the statement for you before doing the next execute.

Examples:

  use DBI qw(:sql_types);
  use DBD::Pg qw(:pg_types);

  $SQL = "SELECT id FROM ptable WHERE size > ? AND title = ?";
  $sth = $dbh->prepare($SQL);

  ## Both arguments below are bound to placeholders as "varchar"
  $sth->execute(123, "Merk");

  ## Reset the datatype for the first placeholder to an integer
  $sth->bind_param(1, undef, SQL_INTEGER);

  ## The "undef" bound above is not used, since we supply params to execute
  $sth->execute(123, "Merk");

  ## Set the first placeholder's value and data type
  $sth->bind_param(1, 234, { pg_type => PG_TIMESTAMP });

  ## Set the second placeholder's value and data type.
  ## We don't send a third argument, so the default "varchar" is used
  $sth->bind_param('$2', "Zool");

  ## We realize that the wrong data type was set above, so we change it:
  $sth->bind_param('$1', 234, { pg_type => SQL_INTEGER });

  ## We also got the wrong value, so we change that as well.
  ## Because the data type is sticky, we don't need to change it
  $sth->bind_param(1, 567);

  ## This executes the statement with 567 (integer) and "Zool" (varchar)
  $sth->execute();

bind_param_inout

  $rv = $sth->bind_param_inout($param_num, \$scalar, 0);

Experimental support for this feature is provided. The first argument to bind_param_inout should be a placeholder number. The second argument should be a reference to a scalar variable in your script. The third argument is not used and should simply be set to 0. Note that what this really does is assign a returned column to the variable, in the order in which the column appears. For example:

  my $foo = 123;
  $sth = $dbh->prepare("SELECT 1+?::int");
  $sth->bind_param_inout(1, \$foo, 0);
  $foo = 222;
  $sth->execute(444);
  $sth->fetch;

The above will cause $foo to have a new value of "223" after the final fetch. Note that the variables bound in this manner are very sticky, and will trump any values passed in to execute. This is because the binding is done as late as possible, at the execute() stage, allowing the value to be changed between the time it was bound and the time the query is executed. Thus, the above execute is the same as:

  $sth->execute();

bind_param_array

  $rv = $sth->bind_param_array($param_num, $array_ref_or_value)
  $rv = $sth->bind_param_array($param_num, $array_ref_or_value, $bind_type)
  $rv = $sth->bind_param_array($param_num, $array_ref_or_value, \%attr)

Binds an array of values to a placeholder, so that each is used in turn by a call to the "execute_array" method.

execute

  $rv = $sth->execute(@bind_values);

Executes a previously prepared statement. In addition to "UPDATE", "DELETE", "INSERT" statements, for which it returns always the number of affected rows, the "execute" method can also be used for "SELECT ... INTO table" statements.

The "prepare/bind/execute" process has changed significantly for PostgreSQL servers 7.4 and later: please see the prepare() and bind_param() entries for much more information.

Setting one of the bind_values to "undef" is the equivalent of setting the value to NULL in the database. Setting the bind_value to $DBDPG_DEFAULT is equivalent to sending the literal string 'DEFAULT' to the backend. Note that using this option will force server-side prepares off until such time as PostgreSQL supports using DEFAULT in prepared statements.

DBD::Pg also supports passing in arrays to execute: simply pass in an arrayref, and DBD::Pg will flatten it into a string suitable for input on the backend.

If you are using Postgres version 8.2 or greater, you can also use any of the fetch methods to retrieve the values of a "RETURNING" clause after you execute an "UPDATE", "DELETE", or "INSERT". For example:

  $dbh->do(q{CREATE TABLE abc (id SERIAL, country TEXT)});
  $SQL = q{INSERT INTO abc (country) VALUES (?) RETURNING id};
  $sth = $dbh->prepare($SQL);
  $sth->execute('France');
  $countryid = $sth->fetch()->[0];
  $sth->execute('New Zealand');
  $countryid = $sth->fetch()->[0];

execute_array

  $tuples = $sth->execute_array() or die $sth->errstr;
  $tuples = $sth->execute_array(\%attr) or die $sth->errstr;
  $tuples = $sth->execute_array(\%attr, @bind_values) or die $sth->errstr;

  ($tuples, $rows) = $sth->execute_array(\%attr) or die $sth->errstr;
  ($tuples, $rows) = $sth->execute_array(\%attr, @bind_values) or die $sth->errstr;

Execute a prepared statement once for each item in a passed-in hashref, or items that were previously bound via the "bind_param_array" method. See the DBI documentation for more details.

execute_for_fetch

  $tuples = $sth->execute_for_fetch($fetch_tuple_sub);
  $tuples = $sth->execute_for_fetch($fetch_tuple_sub, \@tuple_status);

  ($tuples, $rows) = $sth->execute_for_fetch($fetch_tuple_sub);
  ($tuples, $rows) = $sth->execute_for_fetch($fetch_tuple_sub, \@tuple_status);

Used internally by the "execute_array" method, and rarely used directly. See the DBI documentation for more details.

fetchrow_arrayref

  $ary_ref = $sth->fetchrow_arrayref;

Fetches the next row of data from the statement handle, and returns a reference to an array holding the column values. Any columns that are NULL are returned as undef within the array.

If there are no more rows or if an error occurs, then this method return undef. You should check "$sth->err" afterwards (or use the RaiseError attribute) to discover if the undef returned was due to an error.

Note that the same array reference is returned for each fetch, so don't store the reference and then use it after a later fetch. Also, the elements of the array are also reused for each row, so take care if you want to take a reference to an element. See also "bind_columns".

fetchrow_array

  @ary = $sth->fetchrow_array;

Similar to the "fetchrow_arrayref" method, but returns a list of column information rather than a reference to a list. Do not use this in a scalar context.

fetchrow_hashref

  $hash_ref = $sth->fetchrow_hashref;
  $hash_ref = $sth->fetchrow_hashref($name);

Fetches the next row of data and returns a hashref containing the name of the columns as the keys and the data itself as the values. Any NULL value is returned as an undef value.

If there are no more rows or if an error occurs, then this method return undef. You should check "$sth->err" afterwards (or use the RaiseError attribute) to discover if the undef returned was due to an error.

The optional $name argument should be either "NAME", "NAME_lc" or "NAME_uc", and indicates what sort of transformation to make to the keys in the hash.

fetchall_arrayref

  $tbl_ary_ref = $sth->fetchall_arrayref();
  $tbl_ary_ref = $sth->fetchall_arrayref( $slice );
  $tbl_ary_ref = $sth->fetchall_arrayref( $slice, $max_rows );

Returns a reference to an array of arrays that contains all the remaining rows to be fetched from the statement handle. If there are no more rows, an empty arrayref will be returned. If an error occurs, the data read in so far will be returned. Because of this, you should always check "$sth->err" after calling this method, unless RaiseError has been enabled.

If $slice is an array reference, fetchall_arrayref uses the "fetchrow_arrayref" method to fetch each row as an array ref. If the $slice array is not empty then it is used as a slice to select individual columns by perl array index number (starting at 0, unlike column and parameter numbers which start at 1).

With no parameters, or if $slice is undefined, fetchall_arrayref acts as if passed an empty array ref.

If $slice is a hash reference, fetchall_arrayref uses "fetchrow_hashref" to fetch each row as a hash reference.

See the DBI documentation for a complete discussion.

fetchall_hashref

  $hash_ref = $sth->fetchall_hashref( $key_field );

Returns a hashref containing all rows to be fetched from the statement handle. See the DBI documentation for a full discussion.

finish

  $rv = $sth->finish;

Indicates to DBI that you are finished with the statement handle and are not going to use it again. Only needed when you have not fetched all the possible rows.

rows

  $rv = $sth->rows;

Returns the number of rows returned by the last query. In contrast to many other DBD modules, the number of rows is available immediately after calling "$sth->execute". Note that the "execute" method itself returns the number of rows itself, which means that this method is rarely needed.

bind_col

  $rv = $sth->bind_col($column_number, \$var_to_bind);
  $rv = $sth->bind_col($column_number, \$var_to_bind, \%attr );
  $rv = $sth->bind_col($column_number, \$var_to_bind, $bind_type );

Binds a Perl variable and/or some attributes to an output column of a SELECT statement. Column numbers count up from 1. You do not need to bind output columns in order to fetch data.

See the DBI documentation for a discussion of the optional parameters "\%attr" and $bind_type

bind_columns

  $rv = $sth->bind_columns(@list_of_refs_to_vars_to_bind);

Calls the "bind_col" method for each column in the SELECT statement, using the supplied list.

dump_results

  $rows = $sth->dump_results($maxlen, $lsep, $fsep, $fh);

Fetches all the rows from the statement handle, calls "DBI::neat_list" for each row, and prints the results to $fh (which defaults to STDOUT). Rows are separated by $lsep (which defaults to a newline). Columns are separated by $fsep (which defaults to a comma). The $maxlen controls how wide the output can be, and defaults to 35.

This method is designed as a handy utility for prototyping and testing queries. Since it uses "neat_list" to format and edit the string for reading by humans, it is not recommended for data transfer applications.

blob_read

  $blob = $sth->blob_read($id, $offset, $len);

Supported by DBD::Pg. This method is implemented by DBI but not currently documented by DBI, so this method might change.

This method seems to be heavily influenced by the current implementation of blobs in Oracle. Nevertheless we try to be as compatible as possible. Whereas Oracle suffers from the limitation that blobs are related to tables and every table can have only one blob (datatype LONG), PostgreSQL handles its blobs independent of any table by using so-called object identifiers. This explains why the "blob_read" method is blessed into the STATEMENT package and not part of the DATABASE package. Here the field parameter has been used to handle this object identifier. The offset and len parameters may be set to zero, in which case the whole blob is fetched at once.

See also the PostgreSQL-specific functions concerning blobs, which are available via the "func" interface.

For further information and examples about blobs, please read the chapter about Large Objects in the PostgreSQL Programmer's Guide at <http://www.postgresql.org/docs/current/static/largeobjects.html>.

pg_canonical_ids

  $data = $sth->pg_canonical_ids;

DBD::Pg specific method. It returns Oid of table and position in table for every column in result set.

Returns array of arrays with Table Oid and Column Position for every column in result set or undef if current column is not a simple reference.

pg_canonical_names

  $data = $sth->pg_canonical_names;

DBD::Pg specific method. It returns array of original (or canonical) names (from where this data is actually came from) of columns in Schema.Table.Column format or undef if current column is not a simple reference.

Note that this method is quite slow because it need additional information from server for every column that is simple reference. Consider to use "pg_canonical_ids" instead.

last_insert_id

  $rv = $sth->last_insert_id(undef, $schema, $table, undef);
  $rv = $sth->last_insert_id(undef, $schema, $table, undef, {sequence => $seqname});

This is simply an alternative way to return the same information as "$dbh->last_insert_id".

  Statement Handle Attributes
NUM_OF_FIELDS (integer, read-only)

Returns the number of columns returned by the current statement. A number will only be returned for SELECT statements, for SHOW statements (which always return 1), and for INSERT, UPDATE, and DELETE statements which contain a RETURNING clause. This method returns undef if called before execute().

NUM_OF_PARAMS (integer, read-only)

Returns the number of placeholders in the current statement.

NAME (arrayref, read-only)

Returns an arrayref of column names for the current statement. This method will only work for SELECT statements, for SHOW statements, and for INSERT, UPDATE, and DELETE statements which contain a RETURNING clause. This method returns undef if called before execute().

NAME_lc (arrayref, read-only)

The same as the "NAME" attribute, except that all column names are forced to lower case.

NAME_uc (arrayref, read-only)

The same as the "NAME" attribute, except that all column names are forced to upper case.

NAME_hash (hashref, read-only)

Similar to the "NAME" attribute, but returns a hashref of column names instead of an arrayref. The names of the columns are the keys of the hash, and the values represent the order in which the columns are returned, starting at 0. This method returns undef if called before execute().

NAME_lc_hash (hashref, read-only)

The same as the "NAME_hash" attribute, except that all column names are forced to lower case.

NAME_uc_hash (hashref, read-only)

The same as the "NAME_hash" attribute, except that all column names are forced to lower case.

TYPE (arrayref, read-only)

Returns an arrayref indicating the data type for each column in the statement. This method returns undef if called before execute().

PRECISION (arrayref, read-only)

Returns an arrayref of integer values for each column returned by the statement. The number indicates the precision for "NUMERIC" columns, the size in number of characters for "CHAR" and "VARCHAR" columns, and for all other types of columns it returns the number of bytes. This method returns undef if called before execute().

SCALE (arrayref, read-only)

Returns an arrayref of integer values for each column returned by the statement. The number indicates the scale of the that column. The only type that will return a value is "NUMERIC". This method returns undef if called before execute().

NULLABLE (arrayref, read-only)

Returns an arrayref of integer values for each column returned by the statement. The number indicates if the column is nullable or not. 0 = not nullable, 1 = nullable, 2 = unknown. This method returns undef if called before execute().

Database (dbh, read-only)

Returns the database handle this statement handle was created from.

ParamValues (hash ref, read-only)

Returns a reference to a hash containing the values currently bound to placeholders. If the "named parameters" type of placeholders are being used (such as ":foo"), then the keys of the hash will be the names of the placeholders (without the colon). If the "dollar sign numbers" type of placeholders are being used, the keys of the hash will be the numbers, without the dollar signs. If the "question mark" type is used, integer numbers will be returned, starting at one and increasing for every placeholder.

If this method is called before "execute", the literal values passed in are returned. If called after "execute", then the quoted versions of the values are returned.

ParamTypes (hash ref, read-only)

Returns a reference to a hash containing the type names currently bound to placeholders. The keys are the same as returned by the ParamValues method. The values are hashrefs containing a single key value pair, in which the key is either 'TYPE' if the type has a generic SQL equivalent, and 'pg_type' if the type can only be expressed by a Postgres type. The value is the internal number corresponding to the type originally passed in. (Placeholders that have not yet been bound will return undef as the value). This allows the output of ParamTypes to be passed back to the "bind_param" method.

Statement (string, read-only)

Returns the statement string passed to the most recent "prepare" method called in this database handle, even if that method failed. This is especially useful where "RaiseError" is enabled and the exception handler checks $@ and sees that a "prepare" method call failed.

pg_current_row (integer, read-only)

DBD::Pg specific attribute. Returns the number of the tuple (row) that was most recently fetched. Returns zero before and after fetching is performed.

pg_numbound (integer, read-only)

DBD::Pg specific attribute. Returns the number of placeholders that are currently bound (via bind_param).

pg_bound (hashref, read-only)

DBD::Pg specific attribute. Returns a hash of all named placeholders. The key is the name of the placeholder, and the value is a 0 or a 1, indicating if the placeholder has been bound yet (e.g. via bind_param)

pg_size (arrayref, read-only)

DBD::Pg specific attribute. It returns a reference to an array of integer values for each column. The integer shows the size of the column in bytes. Variable length columns are indicated by -1.

pg_type (arrayref, read-only)

DBD::Pg specific attribute. It returns a reference to an array of strings for each column. The string shows the name of the data_type.

pg_segments (arrayref, read-only)

DBD::Pg specific attribute. Returns an arrayref of the query split on the placeholders.

pg_oid_status (integer, read-only)

DBD::Pg specific attribute. It returns the OID of the last INSERT command.

pg_cmd_status (integer, read-only)

DBD::Pg specific attribute. It returns the type of the last command. Possible types are: "INSERT", "DELETE", "UPDATE", "SELECT".

pg_direct (boolean)

DBD::Pg specific attribute. Default is false. If true, the query is passed directly to the backend without parsing for placeholders.

pg_prepare_now (boolean)

DBD::Pg specific attribute. Default is off. If true, the query will be immediately prepared, rather than waiting for the "execute" call.

pg_prepare_name (string)

DBD::Pg specific attribute. Specifies the name of the prepared statement to use for this statement handle. Not normally needed, see the section on the "prepare" method for more information.

pg_server_prepare (boolean)

DBD::Pg specific attribute. Indicates if DBD::Pg should attempt to use server-side prepared statements for this statement handle. The default value, true, indicates that prepared statements should be used whenever possible. See the section on the "prepare" method for more information.

pg_switch_prepared (integer)

DBD::Pg specific attribute. Indicates when DBD::Pg will internally switch from using PQexecParams to PQexecPrepared. In other words, when it will start using server-side prepared statements (assuming all other requirements for them are met). The default value, 2, means that a prepared statement will be prepared and used the second and subsequent time execute is called. To always use PQexecPrepared instead of PQexecParams, set pg_switch_prepared to 1 (this was the default behavior in earlier versions). Setting pg_switch_prepared to 0 will force DBD::Pg to always use PQexecParams.

pg_placeholder_dollaronly (boolean)

DBD::Pg specific attribute. Defaults to false. When true, question marks inside of the query being prepared are not treated as placeholders. Useful for statements that contain unquoted question marks, such as geometric operators. Note that you may also simply escape question marks with a backslash to prevent them from being treated as placeholders.

pg_placeholder_nocolons (boolean)

DBD::Pg specific attribute. Defaults to false. When true, colons inside of statements are not treated as placeholders. Useful for statements that contain an array slice. You may also place a backslash directly before the colon to prevent it from being treated as a placeholder.

pg_async (integer)

DBD::Pg specific attribute. Indicates the current behavior for asynchronous queries. See the section on "Asynchronous Constants" for more information.

pg_async_status (integer, read-only)

DBD::Pg specific attribute. Returns the current status of an asynchronous command. 0 indicates no asynchronous command is in progress, 1 indicates that an asynchronous command has started and -1 indicated that an asynchronous command has been cancelled.

RowsInCache

Not used by DBD::Pg

RowCache

Not used by DBD::Pg

CursorName

Not used by DBD::Pg. See the note about "Cursors" elsewhere in this document.

FURTHER INFORMATION

  Encoding
DBD::Pg has extensive support for a client_encoding of UTF-8, and most things like encoding and decoding should happen automatically. If you are using a different encoding, you will need do the encoding and decoding yourself. For this reason, it is highly recommended to always use a client_encoding of UTF-8. The server_encoding can be anything, and no recommendations are made there, other than avoid SQL_ASCII whenever possible.

  Transactions
Transaction behavior is controlled via the "AutoCommit" attribute. For a complete definition of "AutoCommit" please refer to the DBI documentation.

According to the DBI specification the default for "AutoCommit" is a true value. In this mode, any change to the database becomes valid immediately. Any "BEGIN", "COMMIT" or "ROLLBACK" statements will be rejected. Note that preparing a statement does not always contact the server, as the actual "PREPARE" is usually postponed until the first call to "execute".

  Savepoints
PostgreSQL version 8.0 introduced the concept of savepoints, which allows transactions to be rolled back to a certain point without affecting the rest of the transaction. DBD::Pg encourages using the following methods to control savepoints:

"pg_savepoint"

Creates a savepoint. This will fail unless you are inside of a transaction. The only argument is the name of the savepoint. Note that PostgreSQL DOES allow multiple savepoints with the same name to exist.

  $dbh->pg_savepoint("mysavepoint");

"pg_rollback_to"

Rolls the database back to a named savepoint, discarding any work performed after that point. If more than one savepoint with that name exists, rolls back to the most recently created one.

  $dbh->pg_rollback_to("mysavepoint");

"pg_release"

Releases (or removes) a named savepoint. If more than one savepoint with that name exists, it will only destroy the most recently created one. Note that all savepoints created after the one being released are also destroyed.

  $dbh->pg_release("mysavepoint");

  Asynchronous Queries
It is possible to send a query to the backend and have your script do other work while the query is running on the backend. Both queries sent by the "do" method, and by the "execute" method can be sent asynchronously. The basic usage is as follows:

  print "Async do() example:\n";
  $dbh->do("SELECT long_running_query()", {pg_async => PG_ASYNC});
  do_something_else();
  {
    if ($dbh->pg_ready()) {
      $res = $dbh->pg_result();
      print "Result of do(): $res\n";
    }
    print "Query is still running...\n";
    if (cancel_request_received) {
      $dbh->pg_cancel();
    }
    sleep 1;
    redo;
  }

  print "Async prepare/execute example:\n";
  $sth = $dbh->prepare("SELECT long_running_query(1)", {pg_async => PG_ASYNC});
  $sth->execute();

  ## Changed our mind, cancel and run again:
  $sth = $dbh->prepare("SELECT 678", {pg_async => PG_ASYNC + PG_OLDQUERY_CANCEL});
  $sth->execute();

  do_something_else();

  if (!$sth->pg_ready) {
    do_another_thing();
  }

  ## We wait until it is done, and get the result:
  $res = $dbh->pg_result();

Asynchronous Constants

There are currently three asynchronous constants automatically exported by DBD::Pg.

PG_ASYNC
    This is a constant for the number 1. It is passed to either the "do" or the "prepare" method as a value to the pg_async key and indicates that the query should be sent asynchronously.

PG_OLDQUERY_CANCEL
    This is a constant for the number 2. When passed to either the "do" or the "prepare" method, it causes any currently running asynchronous query to be cancelled and rolled back. It has no effect if no asynchronous query is currently running.

PG_OLDQUERY_WAIT
    This is a constant for the number 4. When passed to either the "do" or the "prepare" method, it waits for any currently running asynchronous query to complete. It has no effect if there is no asynchronous query currently running.

Asynchronous Methods

pg_cancel
    This database-level method attempts to cancel any currently running asynchronous query. It returns true if the cancel succeeded, and false otherwise. Note that a query that has finished before this method is executed will also return false. WARNING: a successful cancellation may leave the database in an unusable state, so you may need to ROLLBACK or ROLLBACK TO a savepoint. As of version 2.17.0 of DBD::Pg, rollbacks are not done automatically.

      $result = $dbh->pg_cancel();

pg_ready
    This method can be called as a database handle method or (for convenience) as a statement handle method. Both simply see if a previously issued asynchronous query has completed yet. It returns true if the statement has finished, in which case you should then call the "pg_result" method. Calls to pg_ready() should only be used when you have other things to do while the query is running. If you simply want to wait until the query is done, do not call pg_ready() over and over, but simply call the pg_result() method.

      my $time = 0;
      while (!$dbh->pg_ready) {
        print "Query is still running. Seconds: $time\n";
        $time++;
        sleep 1;
      }
      $result = $dbh->pg_result;

pg_result
    This database handle method returns the results of a previously issued asynchronous query. If the query is still running, this method will wait until it has finished. The result returned is the number of rows: the same thing that would have been returned by the asynchronous "do" or "execute" if it had been called without an asynchronous flag.

      $result = $dbh->pg_result;

Asynchronous Examples

Here are some working examples of asynchronous queries. Note that we'll use the pg_sleep function to emulate a long-running query.

  use strict;
  use warnings;
  use Time::HiRes 'sleep';
  use DBD::Pg ':async';

  my $dbh = DBI->connect('dbi:Pg:dbname=postgres', 'postgres', '', {AutoCommit=>0,RaiseError=>1});

  ## Kick off a long running query on the first database:
  my $sth = $dbh->prepare("SELECT pg_sleep(?)", {pg_async => PG_ASYNC});
  $sth->execute(5);

  ## While that is running, do some other things
  print "Your query is processing. Thanks for waiting\n";
  check_on_the_kids(); ## Expensive sub, takes at least three seconds.

  while (!$dbh->pg_ready) {
    check_on_the_kids();
    ## If the above function returns quickly for some reason, we add a small sleep
    sleep 0.1;
  }

  print "The query has finished. Gathering results\n";
  my $result = $sth->pg_result;
  print "Result: $result\n";
  my $info = $sth->fetchall_arrayref();

Without asynchronous queries, the above script would take about 8 seconds to run: five seconds waiting for the execute to finish, then three for the check_on_the_kids() function to return. With asynchronous queries, the script takes about 6 seconds to run, and gets in two iterations of check_on_the_kids in the process.

Here's an example showing the ability to cancel a long-running query. Imagine two replica databases in different geographic locations over a slow network. You need information as quickly as possible, so you query both at once. When you get an answer, you tell the other one to stop working on your query, as you don't need it anymore.

  use strict;
  use warnings;
  use Time::HiRes 'sleep';
  use DBD::Pg ':async';

  my $dbhrep1 = DBI->connect('dbi:Pg:dbname=postgres;host=replica1', 'postgres', '', {AutoCommit=>0,RaiseError=>1});
  my $dbhrep2 = DBI->connect('dbi:Pg:dbname=postgres;host=replica2', 'postgres', '', {AutoCommit=>0,RaiseError=>1});

  $SQL = "SELECT count(*) FROM largetable WHERE flavor='blueberry'";

  my $sth1 = $dbhrep1->prepare($SQL, {pg_async => PG_ASYNC});
  my $sth2 = $dbhrep2->prepare($SQL, {pg_async => PG_ASYNC});

  $sth1->execute();
  $sth2->execute();

  my $winner;
  while (!defined $winner) {
    if ($sth1->pg_ready) {
      $winner = 1;
    }
    elsif ($sth2->pg_ready) {
      $winner = 2;
    }
    Time::HiRes::sleep 0.05;
  }

  my $count;
  if ($winner == 1) {
    $sth2->pg_cancel();
    $sth1->pg_result();
    $count = $sth1->fetchall_arrayref()->[0][0];
  }
  else {
    $sth1->pg_cancel();
    $sth2->pg_result();
    $count = $sth2->fetchall_arrayref()->[0][0];
  }

  Array support
DBD::Pg allows arrays (as arrayrefs) to be passed in to both the "quote" and the "execute" methods. In both cases, the array is flattened into a string representing a Postgres array.

When fetching rows from a table that contains a column with an array type, the result will be passed back to your script as an arrayref.

To turn off the automatic parsing of returned arrays into arrayrefs, you can set the attribute pg_expand_array, which is true by default.

  $dbh->{pg_expand_array} = 0;

  COPY support
DBD::Pg allows for quick (bulk) reading and storing of data by using the COPY command. The basic process is to use "$dbh->do" to issue a COPY command, and then to either add rows using "pg_putcopydata", or to read them by using "pg_getcopydata".

The first step is to put the server into "COPY" mode. This is done by sending a complete COPY command to the server, by using the "do" method. For example:

  $dbh->do("COPY foobar FROM STDIN");

This would tell the server to enter a COPY IN mode (yes, that's confusing, but the mode is COPY IN because of the command COPY FROM). It is now ready to receive information via the "pg_putcopydata" method. The complete syntax of the COPY command is more complex and not documented here: the canonical PostgreSQL documentation for COPY can be found at:

http://www.postgresql.org/docs/current/static/sql-copy.html

Once a COPY command has been issued, no other SQL commands are allowed until "pg_putcopyend" has been issued (for COPY FROM), or the final "pg_getcopydata" has been called (for COPY TO).

Note: All other COPY methods (pg_putline, pg_getline, etc.) are now heavily deprecated in favor of the pg_getcopydata, pg_putcopydata, and pg_putcopyend methods.

pg_getcopydata

Used to retrieve data from a table after the server has been put into a COPY OUT mode by calling "COPY tablename TO STDOUT". Data is always returned one data row at a time. Note that the server will add a newline to each returned row.

The first argument to pg_getcopydata is the variable into which the data will be stored (this variable should not be undefined, or it may throw a warning, although it may be a reference). The pg_getcopydata method returns a number greater than 1 indicating the new size of the variable, or a -1 when the COPY has finished. Once a -1 has been returned, no other action is necessary, as COPY mode will have already terminated. Example:

  $dbh->do("COPY mytable TO STDOUT");
  my @data;
  my $x=0;
  1 while $dbh->pg_getcopydata($data[$x++]) >= 0;

There is also a variation of this method called pg_getcopydata_async, which, as the name suggests, returns immediately. The only difference from the original method is that this version may return a 0, indicating that the row is not ready to be delivered yet. When this happens, the variable has not been changed, and you will need to call the method again until you get a non-zero result. (Data is still always returned one data row at a time.)

pg_putcopydata

Used to put data into a table after the server has been put into COPY IN mode by calling "COPY tablename FROM STDIN". The only argument is the data you want inserted. Issue a pg_putcopyend() when you have added all your rows.

The default delimiter is a tab character, but this can be changed in the COPY statement. Returns a 1 on successful input. Examples:

  ## Simple example:
  $dbh->do("COPY mytable FROM STDIN");
  $dbh->pg_putcopydata("123\tPepperoni\t3\n");
  $dbh->pg_putcopydata("314\tMushroom\t8\n");
  $dbh->pg_putcopydata("6\tAnchovies\t100\n");
  $dbh->pg_putcopyend();

  ## This example uses explicit columns and a custom delimiter
  $dbh->do("COPY mytable(flavor, slices) FROM STDIN WITH DELIMITER '~'");
  $dbh->pg_putcopydata("Pepperoni~123\n");
  $dbh->pg_putcopydata("Mushroom~314\n");
  $dbh->pg_putcopydata("Anchovies~6\n");
  $dbh->pg_putcopyend();

pg_putcopyend

When you are finished with pg_putcopydata, call pg_putcopyend to let the server know that you are done, and it will return to a normal, non-COPY state. Returns a 1 on success. This method will fail if called when not in COPY IN mode.

  Postgres limits
For convenience, DBD::Pg can export certain constants representing the limits of Postgres data types. To use them, just add ":pg_limits" when DBD::Pg is used:

  use DBD::Pg qw/:pg_limits/;

The constants and their values are:

  PG_MIN_SMALLINT    -32768
  PG_MAX_SMALLINT     32767
  PG_MIN_INTEGER     -2147483648
  PG_MAX_INTEGER      2147483647
  PG_MIN_BIGINT      -9223372036854775808
  PG_MAX_BIGINT       9223372036854775807
  PG_MIN_SMALLSERIAL  1
  PG_MAX_SMALLSERIAL  32767
  PG_MIN_SERIAL       1
  PG_MAX_SERIAL       2147483647
  PG_MIN_BIGSERIAL    1
  PG_MAX_BIGSERIAL    9223372036854775807

  Large Objects
DBD::Pg supports all largeobject functions provided by libpq via the "$dbh->pg_lo*" methods. Please note that access to a large object, even read-only large objects, must be put into a transaction.

If DBD::Pg is compiled against and connected to PostgreSQL 9.3 or newer, and your Perl has 64-bit integers, it will use the 64-bit variants of the seek, tell and truncate methods.

  Cursors
Although PostgreSQL supports cursors, they have not been used in the current implementation. When DBD::Pg was created, cursors in PostgreSQL could only be used inside a transaction block. Because only one transaction block at a time is allowed, this would have implied the restriction not to use any nested "SELECT" statements. Therefore the "execute" method fetches all data at once into data structures located in the front-end application. This fact must to be considered when selecting large amounts of data!

You can use cursors in your application, but you'll need to do a little work. First you must declare your cursor. Now you can issue queries against the cursor, then select against your queries. This typically results in a double loop, like this:

  # WITH HOLD is not needed if AutoCommit is off
  $dbh->do("DECLARE csr CURSOR WITH HOLD FOR $sql");
  while (1) {
    my $sth = $dbh->prepare("fetch 1000 from csr");
    $sth->execute;
    last if 0 == $sth->rows;

    while (my $row = $sth->fetchrow_hashref) {
      # Do something with the data.
    }
  }
  $dbh->do("CLOSE csr");

  Datatype bool
The current implementation of PostgreSQL returns 't' for true and 'f' for false. From the Perl point of view, this is a rather unfortunate choice. DBD::Pg therefore translates the result for the "BOOL" data type in a Perlish manner: 'f' becomes the number 0 and 't' becomes the number 1. This way the application does not have to check the database-specific returned values for the data-type "BOOL" because Perl treats 0 as false and 1 as true. You may set the pg_bool_tf attribute to a true value to change the values back to 't' and 'f' if you wish.

Boolean values can be passed to PostgreSQL as TRUE, 't', 'true', 'y', 'yes' or '1' for true and FALSE, 'f', 'false', 'n', 'no' or '0' for false.

  Schema support
The PostgreSQL schema concept may differ from those of other databases. In a nutshell, a schema is a named collection of objects within a single database. Please refer to the PostgreSQL documentation for more details:

<http://www.postgresql.org/docs/current/static/ddl-schemas.html>

DBD::Pg does not provide explicit support for PostgreSQL schemas. However, schema functionality may be used without any restrictions by explicitly addressing schema objects, e.g.

  my $res = $dbh->selectall_arrayref("SELECT * FROM my_schema.my_table");

or by manipulating the schema search path with "SET search_path", e.g.

  $dbh->do("SET search_path TO my_schema, public");

SEE ALSO
The DBI module

BUGS
To report a bug, or view the current list of bugs, please visit https://github.com/bucardo/dbdpg/issues

DEVELOPMENT
Pull requests can be submitted to github. Detailed information on how to help out with this module can be found in the README.dev file. The latest development version can be obtained via: git clone git://github.com/bucardo/dbdpg.git

AUTHORS
DBI by Tim Bunce <http://www.tim.bunce.name>

The original DBD-Pg was by Edmund Mergl (E.Mergl@bawue.de) and Jeffrey W. Baker (jwbaker@acm.org). Major developers include David Wheeler <david@justatheory.com>, Jason Stewart <jason@openinformatics.com>, Bruce Momjian <pgman@candle.pha.pa.us>, and Greg Sabino Mullane <greg@turnstep.com>, with help from many others: see the Changes file (<http://search.cpan.org/dist/DBD-Pg/Changes>) for a complete list.

Parts of this package were originally copied from DBI and DBD-Oracle.

Mailing List

The current maintainers may be reached through the 'dbd-pg' mailing list: <dbd-pg@perl.org>. Subscribe by sending an email to dbd-pg-subscribe@perl.org. Visit the archives at http://grokbase.com/g/perl/dbd-pg

COPYRIGHT AND LICENSE
Copyright (C) 1994-2023, Greg Sabino Mullane

This module (DBD::Pg) is free software; you can redistribute it and/or modify it under the same terms as Perl 5.10.0. For more details, see the full text of the licenses in the directory LICENSES.